Chapter 1
Introduction to English Grammar
THEORY
1. What is Grammar?
Definition: Grammar is the systematic study of the rules that govern the formation of words and their arrangement into sentences to convey meaning correctly.
Explanation: In simple terms, grammar tells us how words work (their forms) and how words work together (their order and agreement). The word derives from the Greek gramma, meaning "letter".
Competitive Note: UPESSC and UPPSC questions test Standard British English. American spellings and usages (e.g., color, gotten, different than) are usually treated as incorrect distractors.
2. The Branches of Grammar
Indian competitive examinations, following Wren & Martin and Nesfield, traditionally divide grammar into four branches:
| Branch | Concerned with | Modern Equivalent |
|---|---|---|
| Orthography | Letters, sounds, and spelling | Phonology / Spelling |
| Etymology (Accidence) | Forms and classification of words | Morphology |
| Syntax | The correct arrangement of words in sentences | Syntax |
| Prosody | Versification, metre, rhythm | Prosody |
Exam Tip: A frequently asked one-liner is "Which branch of grammar deals with the arrangement of words in a sentence?" — the answer is Syntax.
Memory Trick: O-E-S-P → "Old Elephants Stand Proudly" → Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, Prosody.
3. The Parts of Speech (Overview)
Every word in English belongs to one of eight parts of speech, classified by the function it performs in a sentence.
| No. | Part of Speech | Function | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Noun | Names a person, place, thing, or idea | Delhi, honesty, book |
| 2 | Pronoun | Replaces a noun | he, she, it, they |
| 3 | Adjective | Describes/qualifies a noun | tall, blue, three |
| 4 | Verb | Expresses an action or state | run, is, seem |
| 5 | Adverb | Modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb | quickly, very, here |
| 6 | Preposition | Shows relation of a noun/pronoun to another word | in, on, between |
| 7 | Conjunction | Joins words, phrases, or clauses | and, but, because |
| 8 | Interjection | Expresses sudden emotion | Oh! Alas! Hurrah! |
Important Point — Function over Form: The same word can belong to different parts of speech depending on how it is used.
Five solved examples (function changes the part of speech):
- We had a long run. → run = Noun (names a thing).
- Children run in the park. → run = Verb (an action).
- She works hard. → hard = Adverb (modifies "works").
- It is a hard task. → hard = Adjective (describes "task").
- He fell down. → down = Adverb; He climbed down the hill. → down = Preposition.
Golden Rule: Never decide the part of speech by looking at the word alone. Always read the whole sentence and judge the function.
4. The Sentence (Overview)
Definition: A sentence is a group of words that makes complete sense. A sentence is classified in two ways:
(A) By Function/Meaning — four kinds:
| Kind | Purpose | Example | Ends with |
|---|---|---|---|
| Declarative (Assertive) | States a fact | The sun rises in the east. | . |
| Interrogative | Asks a question | Where do you live? | ? |
| Imperative | Gives a command/request | Please close the door. | . / ! |
| Exclamatory | Expresses strong feeling | What a beautiful sight! | ! |
(B) By Structure — three (sometimes four) kinds:
| Kind | Clauses | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Simple | One independent clause | She sings. |
| Compound | Two+ independent clauses joined by a coordinator | She sings and she dances. |
| Complex | One independent + one+ dependent clause | She sings when she is happy. |
| Compound-Complex | Two+ independent + one+ dependent | She sings when she is happy, and everyone listens. |
Exam Tip: Count the finite verbs to estimate the number of clauses — a useful shortcut for "simple/compound/complex" questions.
5. Subject and Predicate
Every complete sentence has two essential parts:
- Subject — who or what the sentence is about.
- Predicate — what is said about the subject (contains the verb).
Example: The little boy (subject) / kicked the ball hard (predicate).
Memory Trick: Ask "Who/What + verb?" to find the subject. In "The keys are on the table," ask "What are on the table?" → The keys = subject.
COMMON EXAM ERRORS
| # | Wrong | Correct | Explanation |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | He is my cousin brother. | He is my cousin. | "Cousin" already implies relation; cousin brother is redundant. |
| 2 | Discuss about the matter. | Discuss the matter. | "Discuss" is transitive; no preposition. |
| 3 | Order for a coffee. | Order a coffee. | "Order" (to ask for goods) takes no for. |
| 4 | He returned back home. | He returned home. | "Return" already means come back; back is redundant. |
| 5 | Repeat it again. | Repeat it. | "Repeat" includes again. |
| 6 | One of my friend. | One of my friends. | After one of, use a plural noun. |
| 7 | He is junior than me. | He is junior to me. | Latin comparatives take to, not than. |
| 8 | I am going to school by walk. | I am going to school on foot. | Idiomatic phrase is on foot. |
| 9 | She is more wiser. | She is wiser. | Do not use double comparatives. |
| 10 | My all books are new. | All my books are new. | Correct order: all + possessive. |
| 11 | He told me a lie (over-marked). | He told a lie. / He lied to me. | Preferred forms avoid the redundant indirect object. |
| 12 | Every of the boys was present. | Every boy was present. | Every is followed by a singular noun, not of the. |
| 13 | I have no any money. | I have no money. | No and any are not used together. |
| 14 | The sceneries were beautiful. | The scenery was beautiful. | "Scenery" is uncountable; no plural. |
| 15 | He gave me an advice. | He gave me a piece of advice. | "Advice" is uncountable. |
| 16 | Many informations are available. | Much information is available. | "Information" is uncountable. |
| 17 | She is married with a doctor. | She is married to a doctor. | Correct collocation: married to. |
| 18 | He is suffering from since Monday. | He has been suffering since Monday. | Tense + since with point of time. |
| 19 | Each of the students have a book. | Each of the students has a book. | Each takes a singular verb. |
| 20 | The two first chapters. | The first two chapters. | Correct order: ordinal before cardinal. |
| 21 | I am knowing the answer. | I know the answer. | "Know" is a stative verb; no continuous. |
| 22 | He is more cleverer than I. | He is cleverer than I. | Avoid double comparative. |
| 23 | Let he go. | Let him go. | After let, use the objective case. |
| 24 | Between you and I. | Between you and me. | After a preposition, use the objective case. |
| 25 | Hardly I had reached when it rained. | Hardly had I reached when it rained. | After negative adverb hardly, invert subject and auxiliary. |
EXAM TRICKS
- Function-spotting: When asked "What part of speech is the underlined word?", substitute the word with a known noun/verb/adjective to test its slot.
- Clause-counting: To classify a sentence by structure, count finite verbs: one verb → likely simple; coordinating conjunction joining two verbs with subjects → compound; subordinator (when, because, although, that) → complex.
- Distractor awareness: Setters love offering an adverb as the answer when the word is actually a preposition (look for an object after it — a preposition always has one).
- Question framing: Definition-type MCQs ("Which deals with…", "The arrangement of words is called…") reward rote recall of the four branches and eight parts of speech — guaranteed easy marks.
FREQUENTLY CONFUSED PAIRS
| Pair | Distinction | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Adjective / Adverb | Adjective describes a noun; adverb modifies a verb/adjective/adverb | a quick reply / replied quickly |
| Preposition / Conjunction | Preposition takes an object; conjunction joins clauses | since morning (prep) / since you asked (conj) |
| Phrase / Clause | A clause has a finite verb; a phrase does not | in the morning (phrase) / when morning came (clause) |
| Subject / Object | Subject does the action; object receives it | She met him. |
| Assertive / Imperative | Assertive states; imperative commands | You sit. / Sit down. |
EXCEPTIONS — Important, Rare & Advanced
- Interjection debate (Advanced): Modern grammars often do not count the interjection as a true part of speech because it stands outside sentence structure. For UPESSC, however, follow the traditional eight.
- "Determiner" (Modern Rule): Cambridge/Oxford grammar treats articles, demonstratives, and quantifiers as determiners, a category absent from Wren & Martin. UPESSC questions may use either "adjective" or "determiner" — read the option set.
- Words of no fixed class (Rare): Some words (the, to before infinitives) do not fit neatly; the is an article/determiner, and infinitive to is a "particle", not a preposition.
- One-word sentences (Exception): Imperatives like "Go." are complete sentences — the subject (you) is "understood".
50 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Easy (1–15)
1. The word "grammar" is derived from which language?
(a) Latin (b) Greek (c) French (d) Sanskrit
Answer: (b) Greek
Explanation: It comes from the Greek gramma, meaning "letter".
2. How many parts of speech are there in traditional English grammar?
(a) Six (b) Seven (c) Eight (d) Nine
Answer: (c) Eight
Explanation: Noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection.
3. Which branch of grammar deals with the correct arrangement of words in a sentence?
(a) Orthography (b) Etymology (c) Syntax (d) Prosody
Answer: (c) Syntax
Explanation: Syntax governs word order and sentence formation.
4. A word that names a person, place, or thing is a/an:
(a) Verb (b) Noun (c) Adverb (d) Pronoun
Answer: (b) Noun
Explanation: Nouns name entities.
5. "Alas!" is an example of a/an:
(a) Conjunction (b) Preposition (c) Interjection (d) Adverb
Answer: (c) Interjection
Explanation: It expresses sudden emotion.
6. Which part of speech joins words or clauses?
(a) Preposition (b) Conjunction (c) Adjective (d) Pronoun
Answer: (b) Conjunction
Explanation: Conjunctions connect (and, but, because).
7. "He sings beautifully." The underlined word is a/an:
(a) Adjective (b) Noun (c) Adverb (d) Verb
Answer: (c) Adverb
Explanation: It modifies the verb "sings".
8. A sentence that asks a question is called:
(a) Assertive (b) Imperative (c) Interrogative (d) Exclamatory
Answer: (c) Interrogative
Explanation: It ends with a question mark.
9. The part of a sentence that tells us about the subject is the:
(a) Object (b) Predicate (c) Complement (d) Phrase
Answer: (b) Predicate
Explanation: The predicate contains the verb and says something about the subject.
10. "What a lovely garden!" is a/an ______ sentence.
(a) Assertive (b) Imperative (c) Exclamatory (d) Interrogative
Answer: (c) Exclamatory
Explanation: It expresses strong feeling and ends with an exclamation mark.
11. Which word is a pronoun?
(a) Quickly (b) They (c) Honest (d) Under
Answer: (b) They
Explanation: "They" replaces a noun.
12. "Please shut the window." This sentence is:
(a) Interrogative (b) Imperative (c) Exclamatory (d) Assertive
Answer: (b) Imperative
Explanation: It is a request/command with an understood subject "you".
13. A group of words that makes complete sense is called a:
(a) Phrase (b) Clause (c) Sentence (d) Paragraph
Answer: (c) Sentence
Explanation: Complete sense distinguishes a sentence.
14. Which is a preposition?
(a) And (b) Between (c) Run (d) Oh
Answer: (b) Between
Explanation: It shows relation between nouns/pronouns.
15. "The sun rises in the east" is a/an ______ sentence.
(a) Exclamatory (b) Imperative (c) Assertive (d) Interrogative
Answer: (c) Assertive
Explanation: It states a fact.
Moderate (16–35)
16. In "We had a long run," the word "run" is a/an:
(a) Verb (b) Noun (c) Adjective (d) Adverb
Answer: (b) Noun
Explanation: Here "run" names a thing; it is the object after "had".
17. The traditional branch "Accidence" corresponds to which modern term?
(a) Phonology (b) Morphology (c) Syntax (d) Semantics
Answer: (b) Morphology
Explanation: Accidence/Etymology studies word forms = morphology.
18. "She sings when she is happy." This sentence is:
(a) Simple (b) Compound (c) Complex (d) Compound-Complex
Answer: (c) Complex
Explanation: One independent + one dependent clause (subordinator "when").
19. "He worked hard and he passed." This sentence is:
(a) Simple (b) Compound (c) Complex (d) Exclamatory
Answer: (b) Compound
Explanation: Two independent clauses joined by "and".
20. In "He climbed down the hill," the word "down" is a/an:
(a) Adverb (b) Preposition (c) Adjective (d) Verb
Answer: (b) Preposition
Explanation: It has an object ("the hill"), so it is a preposition.
21. Identify the part of speech of "hard" in "It is a hard task."
(a) Adverb (b) Adjective (c) Noun (d) Verb
Answer: (b) Adjective
Explanation: It describes the noun "task".
22. Which sentence is simple?
(a) She came and she sat. (b) She came when I called. (c) She came home early. (d) She came, and we left because it rained.
Answer: (c) She came home early.
Explanation: Only one finite verb / one independent clause.
23. The mnemonic "FANBOYS" represents:
(a) Subordinating conjunctions (b) Coordinating conjunctions (c) Prepositions (d) Interjections
Answer: (b) Coordinating conjunctions
Explanation: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So.
24. A clause differs from a phrase because a clause must contain a:
(a) Noun (b) Finite verb (c) Preposition (d) Conjunction
Answer: (b) Finite verb
Explanation: A clause has a subject and a finite verb.
25. In "She works hard," the word "hard" functions as a/an:
(a) Adjective (b) Adverb (c) Noun (d) Preposition
Answer: (b) Adverb
Explanation: It modifies the verb "works".
26. Which of the following is a compound-complex sentence?
(a) He left early. (b) He left early, and she stayed. (c) He left early because he was tired, and she stayed. (d) He left when he was tired.
Answer: (c)
Explanation: Two independent clauses + one dependent clause.
27. "Between you and ______, the plan is risky." Choose the correct word.
(a) I (b) me (c) myself (d) mine
Answer: (b) me
Explanation: After the preposition "between", use the objective case.
28. Identify the subject in "On the table lay a book."
(a) the table (b) a book (c) On (d) lay
Answer: (b) a book
Explanation: Ask "What lay on the table?" → "a book".
29. Which branch deals with versification and metre?
(a) Syntax (b) Orthography (c) Prosody (d) Etymology
Answer: (c) Prosody
Explanation: Prosody studies rhythm and metre in verse.
30. "Let ______ go." Choose the correct form.
(a) he (b) him (c) his (d) he is
Answer: (b) him
Explanation: After "let", the objective case is required.
31. In modern grammar, articles (a, an, the) are best classified as:
(a) Pronouns (b) Determiners (c) Conjunctions (d) Adverbs
Answer: (b) Determiners
Explanation: Cambridge/Oxford grammar groups them as determiners.
32. Which sentence is interrogative?
(a) Sit down. (b) How lovely! (c) Have you eaten? (d) I am tired.
Answer: (c) Have you eaten?
Explanation: It asks a question.
33. In "Honesty is the best policy," the word "Honesty" is a/an:
(a) Proper noun (b) Abstract noun (c) Collective noun (d) Material noun
Answer: (b) Abstract noun
Explanation: It names a quality/idea.
34. Choose the correctly ordered phrase:
(a) two first chapters (b) first two chapters (c) first chapters two (d) chapters two first
Answer: (b) first two chapters
Explanation: Ordinal precedes cardinal.
35. Identify the part of speech of "but" in "He is poor but honest."
(a) Preposition (b) Conjunction (c) Adverb (d) Interjection
Answer: (b) Conjunction
Explanation: It joins two adjectives/clauses (coordinating).
Difficult (36–50)
36. In "But me no buts," the first "But" functions as a/an:
(a) Conjunction (b) Verb (c) Preposition (d) Adverb
Answer: (b) Verb
Explanation: Here "but" is used as a verb ("do not 'but' me"); the second "buts" is a noun — a classic function-shift example.
37. Which statement about the interjection is true in modern grammar?
(a) It is the most important part of speech. (b) It is often excluded from true parts of speech as it stands outside sentence structure. (c) It always takes an object. (d) It modifies verbs.
Answer: (b)
Explanation: Interjections are grammatically independent and are frequently set apart in modern analysis.
38. "Hardly ______ reached the station when the train left."
(a) I had (b) had I (c) I have (d) have I
Answer: (b) had I
Explanation: A negative adverb ("Hardly") at the start forces inversion of subject and auxiliary.
39. Identify the structure: "Although he was tired, he worked, and he succeeded."
(a) Simple (b) Compound (c) Complex (d) Compound-Complex
Answer: (d) Compound-Complex
Explanation: Dependent clause ("Although…tired") + two independent clauses.
40. In "The poor are not always unhappy," the word "poor" is a/an:
(a) Adjective (b) Adverb (c) Noun (adjective used as noun) (d) Verb
Answer: (c) Noun
Explanation: "The + adjective" denotes a class of people and functions as a plural noun.
41. Which word can function as both a preposition and a conjunction?
(a) Quickly (b) Since (c) Beautiful (d) Oh
Answer: (b) Since
Explanation: Since morning (preposition); Since you asked (conjunction).
42. "To err is human." The words "To err" function as a/an:
(a) Finite verb (b) Noun (infinitive used as subject) (c) Adverb (d) Preposition
Answer: (b) Noun
Explanation: The infinitive acts as the subject = a noun equivalent.
43. Choose the sentence with correct case usage:
(a) Let he and I go. (b) Let him and me go. (c) Let he and me go. (d) Let him and I go.
Answer: (b) Let him and me go.
Explanation: After "let", both pronouns take the objective case.
44. "Running is good exercise." The word "Running" here is a/an:
(a) Present participle (adjective) (b) Gerund (noun) (c) Finite verb (d) Adverb
Answer: (b) Gerund (noun)
Explanation: An -ing form used as a noun (subject) is a gerund.
45. The order O-E-S-P helps remember:
(a) Parts of speech (b) Branches of grammar (c) Kinds of sentences (d) Tenses
Answer: (b) Branches of grammar
Explanation: Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, Prosody.
46. Identify the part of speech of "fast" in "He observed a fast on Monday."
(a) Adjective (b) Adverb (c) Noun (d) Verb
Answer: (c) Noun
Explanation: "A fast" (act of fasting) is a noun here, not an adjective.
47. Which is a complex sentence?
(a) I know the man who came. (b) I know the man and his son. (c) I know him well. (d) He came and went.
Answer: (a) I know the man who came.
Explanation: "who came" is a dependent (relative) clause.
48. In "Slow and steady wins the race," the subject of "wins" is:
(a) race (b) Slow and steady (taken as a single idea) (c) steady (d) the
Answer: (b)
Explanation: The phrase is treated as one singular subject, hence singular verb "wins".
49. Which sentence shows an understood subject?
(a) The boy ran. (b) Run fast! (c) She is here. (d) They left.
Answer: (b) Run fast!
Explanation: The imperative has an understood subject "you".
50. "He is off today." The word "off" is a/an:
(a) Preposition (b) Adverb (c) Adjective (d) Conjunction
Answer: (c) Adjective
Explanation: Here "off" describes a state of "he" (absent/not working) and functions adjectivally after the linking verb "is".